Category Archives: Theory-oriented tutorials

Some thoery-oriented tutorials

Object Classes

Back to part 4

In this part, we will talk about a quite interesting and useful topic in Nspire Lua programming, which relies on working with “objects” instead of (or in addition to…) classic variables.

If you already have some Lua knowledge, you should know that it is using a lot of key-indexed or key/value tables. This means that each element of a table (or list) is linked to a key that lets us to refer with. For example the table below is key-indexed with strings :

tab = {"cle1"="valeur1", "cle2"="valeur2"}
print(tab["cle1"]) -- va afficher "valeur1"

In Lua, keys are polymorphic, that way we can easily store strings, tables or functions as key or as value :

tab = {
  [1]="exemple",
  "2"="de",
  [function() return 3 end]="table",
  [false]="polymorphe"
}
 
for k, v in pairs(tab) do
  print(k, v)
end

Will display :

1                 exemple
2                 de
function: 10f6840 table
false             polymorphe

Even the Lua global environment (_G) is a table.

It’s in this way we’re going to introduce Lua object-oriented-programming (“OOP”) : Each object is a table and each object has multiple elements named methods or properties. In the future if we would like to create a new object we simply duplicate the table from its meta-table. If we would like to create inherited objects, we will also duplicate its meta-table and change it a little bit to make it different from the main object.

myObject = {
    nom="toto",
    age=21,
    ChangerNom=function(self, nom)
        if #nom > 1 then
            self.nom = nom
        end
    end,
    ChangerAge=function(self, age)
        if age > 1 then
            self.age = age
        end
    end
}

We can easily access/write stuff on any element. For example :

print(myObject.age) -- affiche 21
myObject:ChangerAge(18) -- identique à myObject.ChangerAge(myObject, 18)
print(myObject.age) -- affiche 18

You have to understand that there is no such thing as private/public things in Lua as you could find in C++/C#/Java…, since this is just a representation, and not a real implementation. So it can be easier in Lua, especially for beginners.

You can now understand why you call  platform.window:width()  this way, and not with a global function such as  “GetWindowWidth()”.  In fact, width() is a method of the window object, which itself is a property of the platform object. Same thing for platform.gc() which we can find shortened as ‘gc‘. Actually, gc is an object and platform.gc() is its “constructor”.
In one hand, it’s pretty much the same thing (they both have the same methods), but in the other hand, they have some differences (some of their properties aren’t the same).
(NB : In Nspire Lua code, try to avoid using gc by calling platform.gc(), because of some unexpected behaviors you can get if you don’t know exactly what you’re doing. You should always use the gc that the on.paint(gc) event provides as a parameter)

Let’s tell you what classes look like in code and how to create them.

In the Nspire Lua API, we can find a “class()” method, that usualy doesn’t come with Lua. In fact, this method was created to help programmers create their class by having a much easier and shorter way to do it. For the curious people among our readers, here’s what we would have to do to create and use a class without the class() method (here, for the “Account” class).
(it can be scary if you don’t know Lua well – you can skip this paragraph if you want)

Account = {}
Account.__index = Account
 
function Account.create(balance)
    local acnt = {}             -- our new object
    setmetatable(acnt,Account)  -- make Account handle lookup
    acnt.balance = balance      -- initialize our object
    return acnt
end
 
function Account:withdraw(amount)
    self.balance = self.balance - amount
end
 
-- create and use an Account
acc = Account.create(1000)
acc:withdraw(100)
More info here : http://lua-users.org/wiki/SimpleLuaClasses

Now, with the Nspire Lua API, with  class() :

Account = class()
 
function Account:init(balance)
    self.balance = balance      -- initialize our object
end
 
function Account:withdraw(amount)
    self.balance = self.balance - amount
end
 
-- create and use an Account
acc = Account(1000)
acc:withdraw(100)

That’s much better, right ?

Here, “init()” is the constructor. You *have* to have an “init(…)” method for your classes since it’s written that way in the class() method. The init(…) function will be the one that will be called when your objects are going to be created.

We are going to show you a real example of OOP programming in Lua, by creating a script that will create a class, called “Shape”, which will have several methods including a constructor allowing us to creates shapes.

Forme = class()
 
-- Constructeur
function Forme:init(x, y, image)
    self.xpos = x
    self.ypos = y
    self.pic = image
end
 
-- Dessiner la forme
function Forme:paint(gc)
    gc:drawImage(self.pic, self.xpos, self.ypos)
end
 
-- Repositionner l'objet en indiquant les nouvelles coordonnees
function Forme:setxy(newx, newy)
    if newx > xmin and newx < xmax and newy > ymin and newy < ymax then
        self.xpos = newx
        self.ypos = newy
   end
end
 
-- Repositionner l'objet en indiquant le deplacement a effectuer
function Forme:move(dx, dy)
    local newx,newy
    self:setxy(self.xpos + dx,self.ypos + dy)
end

You may have noticed the use of global variables like xmin, xmax. These are defined earlier in the script, without . For example :

xmin = 20
ymin = 30
xmax = 250
ymax = 200

We can now play around with our “Shape” class. We’re now going to create two images and convert them into TI.Images using the official developement tool :

carre_rouge = image.new("\010\000\000\000\010\000\000\000\000\000\000\000\020\000\000\000\016\000\001\000\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252\227\252")
smiley = image.new("\016\000\000\000\018\000\000\000\000\000\000\000 \000\000\000\016\000\001\000\156\243\156\243\156\243\189\247\213\222\235\193\136\181g\181\135\181g\181\137\185O\202\189\247\156\243\156\243\156\243\156\243\156\243{\239O\206\168\222F\243D\243d\247d\247#\243\004\235E\214\170\1858\231\156\243\156\243\156\243\213\222m\210\231\230d\247\132\251\195\255\131\255\131\255\131\255C\251\003\247\132\226\233\193r\210z\239\156\243\204\189\198\226\132\247\166\218\007\198\198\226\195\255\131\255#\243\231\197\007\198\002\251\131\230\135\185\246\222\212\218g\210D\243\166\218\166\218\197\226D\239\131\255\131\255C\247\165\218d\222\006\206\194\242\196\205O\206\170\185\005\239\131\255\197\226D\239\131\255\131\255\131\255\131\255C\251\034\255\002\255E\218\226\250b\234\167\193G\173C\247\131\255\131\255\130\218\001\198\162\222\131\255c\251\002\243\161\197\161\197\226\250\226\250\162\246\133\193f\181#\243C\251\131\255\194\193\194\156\002\202C\251\034\255\162\234\194\156\194\156\193\250\193\254\193\254\133\193g\181\003\247c\251\034\255\196\230e\218\196\234\034\255\034\255\226\242%\218%\218\226\250\226\250\161\254\133\193&\169\226\242\034\255\034\255\034\255\034\255\034\255\002\255\002\255\193\254\193\254\226\250\161\254\161\254\161\254d\189G\173\163\234\002\255\226\242\194\242\163\234\162\242\162\242\162\242\130\238\130\242B\242\130\242\162\246B\242\133\193\014\198E\214\194\242f\181\198\156\231\156\231\156\231\156\231\156\231\156\231\156\198\156\231\156B\242\227\213\235\197Y\235\136\185\130\238\193\254\132\189s\206\222\251\222\251\222\251\222\251{\239\198\156\130\242\129\254d\189\179\214\156\243\237\193\196\205\162\242\162\242\198\201)\165)\165)\165)\165H\173B\242\129\254\227\213\169\193\023\227\156\243z\239\137\185\034\226\162\246\130\242B\234\034\230\034\230B\234\034\234\129\254\130\242D\181\213\222\156\243\156\243\156\243\023\227\201\197\002\222\162\246\161\254\129\254\161\254\129\254\129\250\034\234d\189\147\214\156\243\156\243\156\243\156\243\156\243\246\222\011\206\196\205\002\222B\238\034\238\034\230\196\209\165\197\147\214{\239\156\243\156\243\156\243\189\247\156\243\156\243\023\227p\210\011\206\198\205\198\205\232\205O\210\147\214\156\243\156\243\156\243\156\243")
forme1 = Forme (xmin + 20, ymin + 20, smiley)
forme2 = Forme (xmax - 30, ymax - 30, carre_rouge)

You can see how we’re not explicitely calling the init() constructor of the Shape class.
In fact, we just have to call Shape(…) and the init will be called with the arguments.

Now we just have to create the main structure of the lua script, with the basic events you should know by now. Here’s what it looks like :

-- Affichage
function on.paint(gc)
    gc:setColorRGB(231, 231, 231)
    gc:fillRect(xmin, ymin, xmax-xmin+15, ymax-ymin+15)
    forme1:paint(gc)
    forme2:paint(gc)
    gc:setColorRGB(0, 0, 255)
    gc:setFont("sansserif" , "b", 11)
    x = gc:drawString("(" .. forme1.xpos..", ".. forme1.ypos .. ")", 50, 0, "top")
end
-- Permet de deplacer forme1 avec les fleches directionnelles
function on.arrowLeft()
    forme1:move(-5, 0)
end
 
function on.arrowRight()
    forme1:move(5, 0)
end
 
function on.arrowUp()
    forme1:move(0, -5)
end
 
function on.arrowDown()
    forme1:move(0, 5)
end
-- Permet de choisir l'emplacement de forme2 avec la souris
function on.mouseDown(wx, wy)
    forme2:setxy(wx, wy)
end

Here’s what you get !

Have fun !

NB : you can find examples of classes and OOP programming in real games programmed in the Nspire Lua API. For instance : the BreakOut game by Adriweb, which uses different classes to have objects such as the ball(s), the blocks, the paddle, the bonuses etc.

Linking Events

Back to part 2

This part will explain how each event is linked to the core.

First of all, we have to understand how this works. Basicly the script is launched before the executive engine (master). This lets us initialize our variables. Sadly, this also means that we can neither evaluate expressions nor use some of the TI-Nspire API (like platform, var) until the engine is launched. Here is a call summary :

  • Launch string library
  • Launch math library
  • Launch TI-Nspire FrameWork (toolpalette, image, …)
  • Open and launch Lua user’s script
  • Launch var API (store, recall, …)
  • Launch platform API (window, gc, …)
  • Link events (pseudo code)
while(Exit)
	------- Some OS routines here
 
 	---- Begin of Event link
	buffer:captureDataFromKeyPad() 	--  (N) some underground routines to catch events
	if buffer.charInput ~= "" then 	 	--  (N)
		on.charIn(buffer.charInput)
		buffer.charInput= "" 	 	 	--  (N)
	end
	if buffer.arrowKey ~= "" then 	 	--  (N)
		on.arrowKey(buffer.arrowKey)
		buffer.arrowKey = "" 	 	 	--  (N)
	end
	----- etc ... 	
	if platform.window.isInvalidate then 
	 	local gc = platform.gc()	 	  	--  Create a new graphical context
	 	gc:begin()	 		 	   		-- initialize the graphical context
		on.paint(gc) 	  	 	  		-- save all the things we have to draw
	 	gc:finish()  	  	  	    		--  (N) draw all those things	
		platform.window.isInvalidate = false 	-- say that the window has been drawn
	end
	----- End of Event link
end

Note : the (N) commented line only indicates the meaning of the routine. Those functions don’t really exist.

Now we can understand how everything is linked, just by a main loop. This helps you to understand that you don’t have to code a loop yourself, because the screen wouldn’t be refreshed. This also helps to see when the screen gets refreshed. In other words, we cannot use niether gc nor platform.gc() in order to draw somthing on the screen if we are outside of on.paint() (except if your outside function is called within on.paint() ).

Here is an example of a simple Lua program that displays a message only when a key is pressed (and let the screen blank otherwise).

function on.paint(gc)
	if message then
	 	gc:setFont("sansserif", "r", 10)	-- initialize font drawing
	 	gc:drawString(message, 0, 0, "top")	-- display the message at (0, 0) coordinates
	 	message = nil 				-- erase the message
	 	timer.start(1) 	 	 	-- start a timer to exit on.paint() but keep in mind that we have to redraw the screen
	end
end
 
function on.timer()
	timer.stop()
	platform.window:invalidate()
end
 
function on.charIn(ch)
	message = "Hello World !"		-- store a message
	platform.window:invalidate()		-- force display
end

When you open the document, the script is read once. It initializes and overwrites all the functions and globals with the ones you defined. Thus, message is nil. Once the on.paint() event is called, message is nil, thus, nothing is done. When you press a key that calls on.charIn()message is now “Hello World” and we tell the platform that the screen has to be refreshed. Then, on.paint() is called again, message is not nil then we display it, erase message and launch a timer. Why is that ? Because if we call platform.window:invalidate() right there, we won’t refresh the screen. Why again ? Just look at the pseudo-code above. We set the window as drawn after each call of on.paint(). Thus a timer is necessary to manually recallon.paint() and exit the on.paint() function to draw the screen. When the timer is ended, on.timer() is called and we refresh the screen. The screen is then redrawn but there is nothing to draw because message is nil. Thus, the graphic context lets the screen blank.

>> Partie 4

Concepts and Basics

This part will explain you how the Lua actually works inside the OS and help you to figure out what you’re doing when you write a script for the TI-Nspire. It is recommended to have some basics on Lua programming or some knowledge of event-driven languages, but keep in mind that it is not required.

The Lua is an interpreted script language which means that it isn’t as fast as ASM/C programs, but is still better than the TI-BASIC. One good thing is that this language is in a complete harmony with the OS with basic events and a powerful graphic context.

Lua is normally a sequential script language. For example, when we use the print() command to display a value, we can easily guess when the command will be run in the script. Here’s an example :

a = 1
print(a)
a = a + 1
print(a)

Output :

1
2

Nothing special. However, on the TI-Nspire, Lua has a completely different approach. We meet this approach with high-level programming or with object-oriented languages (like C++, C#, …). In those languages, we don’t have the ability to control the flow/execution of any function. Yes, it can be quite strange to hear that, but it’s the way it is. Are we going to learn a language that doesn’t do what we tell it to do ? Well, in a way, yes.

But don’t worry ! We’re here to learn how to cross this quite unstable bridge ! A wonderful world is on the other side.

First of all, you have to “change team”. As in before, you were the boss, this means you used to tell the machine to compute 1 + 1 and it would proudly output “2”. Now, you are a worker. A task authorization is given to you, thus, you explain to the machine how to do this work. Actually, those “authorizations” are called events. When the event is called, you can do what ever you want. Here is a pseudo-code explaining what to do when the “Cook” event is called :

function Cook()
	organize_the_bench()
	cut_ingredients()
	assemble()
	heat_up()
	serve()
end

You can easily understand that you won’t cook when you get the job. You’ll wait for your boss’ order ! Well, it is exactly the same thing between the TI-Nspire and you. But this time, the TI-Nspire framework is the boss. Everything is event-based.

In a nutshell, our functions have to be called by the TI-Nspire. But how to be sure that they will be executed ? It is the moment to look at the Events list. When an event is fired, the TI-Nspire gives zero, one or multiple parameters (“arguments”) that we can use in our function. This lets us know, for example, which key has been pressed, because when the TI-Nspire executes the charIn(ch) event, it gives also a string as an argument corresponding to the key. However, when the enterKey() event is fired, no argument is given.

Before, in a non-event-based language (like BASIC, C, PHP …) we used to program like this :

-- Init Constants here
...
k = 0
while k == 0 do
	k = getKey()
end
if k == 72 then
	-- do something
end

Now, it looks like that :

-- Init Constants here
...
function on.charIn(ch)
	if ch == "7" then
		-- do something
	end
end

We hope you understood that very important part…

 

Let’s go to Part 2 now !